Abstract
The passengers inside vehicles could be exposed to high levels of air pollutants particularly while driving on highly polluted and congested traffic roadways. In order to study such exposure levels and its relation to the cabin ventilation condition, a monitoring campaign was conducted to measure the levels inside the three most common types of vehicles in Tehran, Iran (a highly air polluted megacity). In this regard, carbon monoxide (CO) and particulate matter (PM) were measured for various ventilation settings, window positions, and vehicle speeds while driving on the Resalat Highway and through the Resalat Tunnel. Results showed on average in-cabin exposure to particle number and PM10 for the open windows condition was seven times greater when compared to closed windows and air conditioning on. When the vehicle was passing through the tunnel, in-cabin CO and particle number increased 100 and 30%, respectively, compared to driving on highway. Air exchange rate (AER) is a significant factor when evaluating in-cabin air pollutants level. AER was measured and simulated by a model developed through a Monte Carlo analysis of uncertainty and considering two main affecting variables, vehicle speed and fan speed. The lowest AER was 7 h−1 for the closed window and AC on conditions, whereas the highest AER was measured 70 h−1 for an open window condition and speed of 90 km h−1. The results of our study can assist policy makers in controlling in-cabin pollutant exposure and in planning effective strategies for the protection of public health.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adams HS, Nieuwenhuijsen MJ, Colvile RN, McMullen MAS, Khandelwal P (2001) Fine particle (PM2.5) personal exposure levels in transport microenvironments, London, UK. Sci Total Environ 279:29–44
Alameddine I, Abi Esber L, Bou Zeid E, Hatzopoulou M, el-Fadel M (2016) Operational and environmental determinants of in-vehicle CO and PM 2.5 exposure. Sci Total Environ 551–552:42–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.01.030
Andersen ZJ, de Nazelle A, Mendez MA, et al (2015) A study of the combined effects of physical activity and air pollution on mortality in elderly urban residents: the Danish Diet, Cancer, and Health Cohort. Environ Health Perspect. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1408698
Arhami M, Askariyeh M, Momeni M, et al (2013a) Modeling and assessment of air pollutants emission from vehicular sources in Tehran. In: Section 3. Case studies on specific urban areas: understanding the roles of key economic, geographic, and urban design inputs in the pollution characterization or mitigation scenarios. pp 25–34
Arhami M, Kamali N, Rajabi MM (2013b) Predicting hourly air pollutant levels using artificial neural networks coupled with uncertainty analysis by Monte Carlo simulations. Environ Sci Pollut Res 20:4777–4789. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-012-1451-6
Ashrafi K, Shafie-pour M, Kalhor M, Esfahanian V (2012) Numerical simulation of air pollutant distribution in urban tunnels. Environ Model Assess 17:555–564. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10666-012-9308-4
Askariyeh MH, Arhami M (2013) Projecting emission reductions from prospective mobile sources policies by road link-based modelling. Int J Environ Pollut 53:87. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJEP.2013.058820
Baránková P, Naydenov KG, Melikov AK, Sundell J (2004) Distribution of carbon dioxide produced by people in a room: part 1—Laboratory study
Barnes NM, Ng TW, Ma KK, Lai KM (2018) In-cabin air quality during driving and engine idling in air-conditioned private vehicles in Hong Kong. Int J Environ Res Public Health 15. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15040611
Cattaneo A, Taronna M, Garramone G, Peruzzo C, Schlitt C, Consonni D, Cavallo DM (2010) Comparison between personal and individual exposure to urban air pollutants. Aerosol Sci Technol 44:370–379. https://doi.org/10.1080/02786821003662934
Dehghani MH, Jarahzadeh S, Hadei M, Mansouri N, Rashidi Y, Yousefi M (2018) The data on the dispersion modeling of traffic-related PM10 and CO emissions using CALINE3; a case study in Tehran, Iran. Data Br 19:2284–2290. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.DIB.2018.07.019
Delkash M, Mir HM (2016) Examining some potential actions in mitigating gaseous emissions from vehicles, case study: Tehran. Air Qual Atmos Health 9:909–921. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-016-0400-9
Englert N (2004) Fine particles and human health—a review of epidemiological studies. Toxicol Lett 149(1-3):235–242
Fajersztajn L, Veras M, Barrozo LV, Saldiva P (2013) Air pollution: a potentially modifiable risk factor for lung cancer. Nat Rev Cancer 13:674–678. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrc3572
Fakhimi A, Salehi D, Mojtabai N (2004) Numerical back analysis for estimation of soil parameters in the Resalat Tunnel project. Tunn Undergr Sp Technol 19:57–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0886-7798(03)00087-7
Favarato G, Anderson HR, Atkinson R, Fuller G, Mills I, Walton H (2014) Traffic-related pollution and asthma prevalence in children. Quantification of associations with nitrogen dioxide. Air Qual Atmos Health 7:459–466. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-014-0265-8
Fruin SA, Hudda N, Sioutas C, Delfino RJ (2011) Predictive model for vehicle air exchange rates based on a large, representative sample. Environ Sci Technol 45:3569–3575. https://doi.org/10.1021/es103897u
Gan WQ, Koehoorn M, Davies HW, Demers PA, Tamburic L, Brauer M (2011) Long-term exposure to traffic-related air pollution and the risk of coronary heart disease hospitalization and mortality. Environ Health Perspect 119:501–507. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1002511
Gupta HV, Sorooshian S, Yapo PO (1999) Status of automatic calibration for hydrologic models: comparison with multilevel expert calibration. J Hydrol Eng 4:135–143. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1084-0699(1999)4:2(135)
Hampel R, Peters A, Beelen R, Brunekreef B, Cyrys J, de Faire U, de Hoogh K, Fuks K, Hoffmann B, Hüls A, Imboden M, Jedynska A, Kooter I, Koenig W, Künzli N, Leander K, Magnusson P, Männistö S, Penell J, Pershagen G, Phuleria H, Probst-Hensch N, Pundt N, Schaffner E, Schikowski T, Sugiri D, Tiittanen P, Tsai MY, Wang M, Wolf K, Lanki T (2015) Long-term effects of elemental composition of particulate matter on inflammatory blood markers in European cohorts for the ESCAPE TRANSPHORM study groups. Environ Int 82:76–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2015.05.008
Hoek G, Brunekreef B, Goldbohm S, Fischer P, van den Brandt PA (2002) Association between mortality and indicators of traffic-related air pollution in the Netherlands: a cohort study. Lancet 360:1203–1209. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(02)11280-3
Hoek G, Krishnan RM, Beelen R, Peters A, Ostro B, Brunekreef B, Kaufman JD (2013) Long-term air pollution exposure and cardio- respiratory mortality: a review. Environ Health 12:43. https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-069X-12-43
Huang J, Deng F, Wu S, Guo X (2012) Comparisons of personal exposure to PM2.5 and CO by different commuting modes in Beijing, China. Sci Total Environ 425:52–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.03.007
Hudda N, Kostenidou E, Sioutas C, Delfino RJ, Fruin SA (2011) Vehicle and driving characteristics that influence in-cabin particle number concentrations. Environ Sci Technol 45:8691–8697. https://doi.org/10.1021/es202025m
Ikram J, Tahir A, Kazmi H, Khan Z, Javed R, Masood U (2012) View: implementing low cost air quality monitoring solution for urban areas. Environ Syst Res 1:10. https://doi.org/10.1186/2193-2697-1-10
Jain S (2017) Exposure to in-vehicle respirable particulate matter in passenger vehicles under different ventilation conditions and seasons. Sustain Environ Res 27:87–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SERJ.2016.08.006
Janssen NAH, Fischer P, Marra M, Ameling C, Cassee FR (2013) Short-term effects of PM2.5, PM10 and PM2.5–10 on daily mortality in the Netherlands. Sci Total Environ 463–464:20–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.05.062
Jung H (2013) Modeling CO2 concentrations in vehicle cabin. SAE Technical Paper:1–6
Kadiyala A, Kumar A (2013) Quantification of in-vehicle gaseous contaminants of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide under varying climatic conditions. Air Qual Atmos Health 6:215–224. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-011-0163-2
Kamali N, Zare Shahne M, Arhami M (2015) Implementing spectral decomposition of time series data in artificial neural networks to predict air pollutant concentrations. Environ Eng Sci 32:379–388. https://doi.org/10.1089/ees.2014.0350
Kaminsky J, Gaskin E, Matsuda M, Miguel A (2009) In-cabin commuter exposure to ultrafine particles on commuter roads in and around Hong Kong’s Tseung Kwan O Tunnel. Aerosol Air Qual Res
Kappos AD, Bruckmann P, Eikmann T, Englert N, Heinrich U, Höppe P, Koch E, Krause GH, Kreyling WG, Rauchfuss K, Rombout P (2004) Health effects of particles in ambient air. Int J Hyg Environ Health 207(4):399–407
Kara E, Özdilek HG, Kara EE (2013) Ambient air quality and asthma cases in Niğde, Turkey. Environ Sci Pollut Res 20:4225–4234. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-012-1376-0
Ketabchy M (2018) Thermal evaluation an urbanized watershed using SWMM and MINUHET: a case study of Stroubles Creek Watershed, Blacksburg, VA. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.26726.47688
Ketabchy M, Nayeb Yazdi M, Ahamdisharaf E (2016) An overview on geographic information system (GIS) application in environmental management, case study: algae growth assessment in Tampa Bay. Casp Sea J 10:8–13
Ketabchy M, Sample DJ, Wynn-Thompson T, Nayeb Yazdi M (2018) Thermal evaluation of urbanization using a hybrid approach. J Environ Manag 226:457–475. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JENVMAN.2018.08.016
Khreis H, Kelly C, Tate J, Parslow R, Lucas K, Nieuwenhuijsen M (2017) Exposure to traffic-related air pollution and risk of development of childhood asthma: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Environ Int 100:1–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2016.11.012
Klepeis NE, Nelson WC, Ott WR et al (2001) The National Human Activity Pattern Survey (NHAPS): a resource for assessing exposure to environmental pollutants. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol 11:231–252. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.jea.7500165
Knibbs LD, de Dear RJ, Atkinson SE (2009) Field study of air change and flow rate in six automobiles. Indoor Air 19:303–313. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0668.2009.00593.x
Knibbs LD, de Dear RJ, Morawska L (2010) Effect of cabin ventilation rate on ultrafine particle exposure inside automobiles. Environ Sci Technol 44:3546–3551. https://doi.org/10.1021/es9038209
Laussmann D, Helm D (2011) Air change measurements using tracer gases: methods and results. Significance of air change for indoor air quality. In: Chemistry, emission control, radioactive pollution and indoor air quality. InTech
Lee ES, Zhu Y (2014) Application of a high-efficiency cabin air filter for simultaneous mitigation of ultrafine particle and carbon dioxide exposures inside passenger vehicles. Environ Sci Technol 140207112527005. https://doi.org/10.1021/es404952q
Liang K-Y, Zeger SL (1986) Longitudinal data analysis using generalized linear models. Biometrika 73:13–22. https://doi.org/10.1093/biomet/73.1.13
Mahmoudzadeh M, Mansour S, Karimi B (2013) To develop a third-party reverse logistics network for end-of-life vehicles in Iran. Resour Conserv Recycl 78:1–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RESCONREC.2013.06.006
Matz CJ, Stieb DM, Egyed M, Brion O, Johnson M (2018) Evaluation of daily time spent in transportation and traffic-influenced microenvironments by urban Canadians. Air Qual Atmos Health 11:209–220. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-017-0532-6
Moltchanov S, Levy I, Etzion Y, Lerner U, Broday DM, Fishbain B (2015) On the feasibility of measuring urban air pollution by wireless distributed sensor networks. Sci Total Environ 502:537–547. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.09.059
Montreuil A, Tremblay M, Cantinotti M et al (2015) Frequency and risk factors related to smoking in cars with children present. Can J Public Health 106:e369–e374
Moriasi DN, Arnold JG, Van Liew MW et al (2007) Model evaluation guidelines for systematic quantification of accuracy in watershed simulations. Trans ASABE 50:885–900. https://doi.org/10.13031/2013.23153
Motra HB, Hildebrand J, Wuttke F (2016) The Monte Carlo method for evaluating measurement uncertainty: application for determining the properties of materials. Probab Eng Mech 45:220–228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.probengmech.2016.04.005
Naddafi K, Hassanvand MS, Yunesian M, Momeniha F, Nabizadeh R, Faridi S, Gholampour A (2012) Health impact assessment of air pollution in megacity of Tehran, Iran. Iranian J Environ Health Sci Eng 9:28. https://doi.org/10.1186/1735-2746-9-28
Nash JE, Sutcliffe JV (1970) River flow forecasting through conceptual models part I—a discussion of principles. J Hydrol 10:282–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(70)90255-6
Nasr A, Bruen M, Jordan P, Moles R, Kiely G, Byrne P (2007) A comparison of SWAT, HSPF and SHETRAN/GOPC for modelling phosphorus export from three catchments in Ireland. Water Res 41:1065–1073. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2006.11.026
Nayeb Yazdi M, Delavarrafiee M, Arhami M (2015) Evaluating near highway air pollutant levels and estimating emission factors: case study of Tehran, Iran. Sci Total Environ 538:375–384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.07.141
Nayeb Yazdi M, Arhami M, Delavarrafiee M, Ketabchy M (2016) Modeling of cement factory air pollution dispersion by AERMOD. In: Proceeding of 109th Air and Waste Management Association Annual Conference and Exhibition. New Orleans, Louisiana, USA, p 2230
Ott W, Switzer P, Willits N (1994) Carbon monoxide exposures inside an automobile traveling on an urban arterial highway. Air Waste 44:1010–1018
Ott W, Klepeis N, Switzer P (2008) Air change rates of motor vehicles and in-vehicle pollutant concentrations from secondhand smoke. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 18:312–325. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.jes.7500601
Park JH, Spengler JD, Yoon DW et al (1998) Measurement of air exchange rate of stationary vehicles and estimation of in-vehicle exposure. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol 8:65–78
Petersen GA, Sabersky RH (1975) Measurements of pollutants inside an automobile. J Air Pollut Control Assoc 25:1028–1032. https://doi.org/10.1080/00022470.1975.10470174
Phuleria HC, Sheesley RJ, Schauer JJ, Fine PM, Sioutas C (2007) Roadside measurements of size-segregated particulate organic compounds near gasoline and diesel-dominated freeways in Los Angeles, CA. Atmos Environ 41:4653–4671. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ATMOSENV.2007.03.031
Raoof SA, Agaku IT, Vardavas CI (2015) A systematic review of secondhand smoke exposure in a car: attributable changes in atmospheric and biological markers. Chron Respir Dis 12:120–131. https://doi.org/10.1177/1479972315575202
Razmi J, Shakhs-Niyaee M (2008) Developing a specific predetermined time study approach: an empirical study in a car industry. Prod Plan Control 19:454–460. https://doi.org/10.1080/09537280802052028
Ribeiro AG, Baquero OS, de Freitas CU et al (2018) Incidence and mortality risk for respiratory tract cancer in the city of São Paulo, Brazil: Bayesian analysis of the association with traffic density. Cancer Epidemiol 56:53–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CANEP.2018.07.005
Michael Riediker, Ronald Williams, Robert Devlin, et al (2003) Exposure to particulate matter, volatile organic compounds, and other air pollutants inside patrol cars. https://doi.org/10.1021/ES026264Y
Raub JA (1999) Health effects of exposure to ambient carbon monoxide. Chemosphere Global Change Sci 1(1-3):331–351
Rim D, Siegel J, Spinhirne J, Webb A, McDonald-Buller E (2008) Characteristics of cabin air quality in school buses in Central Texas. Atmos Environ 42:6453–6464. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2008.04.030
Rismanchian M, Garsivaz M, Porzamani H, Maracy MR, Shakerian M, Souri S (2014) Effects of in-cabin decoration and deodorizer use on the interior concentrations of toluene and ethylbenzene in pride cars manufactured in Iran. Int J Environ Health Eng 3:34. https://doi.org/10.4103/2277-9183.148277
Sattar SA, Wright KE, Zargar B, Rubino JR, Ijaz MK (2016) Airborne infectious agents and other pollutants in automobiles for domestic use: potential health impacts and approaches to risk mitigation. J Environ Public Health 2016:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/1548326
Shu S, Yu N, Wang Y, Zhu Y (2015) Measuring and modeling air exchange rates inside taxi cabs in Los Angeles, California. Atmos Environ 122:628–635. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2015.10.030
Sotoudeheian S, Arhami M (2014) Estimating ground-level PM10 using satellite remote sensing and ground-based meteorological measurements over Tehran. J Environ Health Sci Eng 12:122. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40201-014-0122-6
Statistical Center of Iran (2012) Statistical Centre of Iran. www.amar.org
Takizad F (2012) Investigation of exhaust emission factors based on vehicle models. Curr World Environ 7:79–85. https://doi.org/10.12944/CWE.7.1.13
Tao Y, Zhong L, Huang X, Lu SE, Li Y, Dai L, Zhang Y, Zhu T, Huang W (2011) Acute mortality effects of carbon monoxide in the Pearl River Delta of China. Sci Total Environ 410:34–40
US EPA O (2015) National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS). In: Environ. Prot. Agency. https://www.epa.gov/criteria-air-pollutants/naaqs-table. Accessed 6 Apr 2018
Vineis P, Hoek G, Krzyzanowski M, Vigna-Taglianti F, Veglia F, Airoldi L, Autrup H, Dunning A, Garte S, Hainaut P, Malaveille C, Matullo G, Overvad K, Raaschou-Nielsen O, Clavel-Chapelon F, Linseisen J, Boeing H, Trichopoulou A, Palli D, Peluso M, Krogh V, Tumino R, Panico S, Bueno-de-Mesquita HB, Peeters PH, Lund EE, Gonzalez CA, Martinez C, Dorronsoro M, Barricarte A, Cirera L, Quiros JR, Berglund G, Forsberg B, Day NE, Key TJ, Saracci R, Kaaks R, Riboli E (2006) Air pollution and risk of lung cancer in a prospective study in Europe. Int J Cancer 119:169–174. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijc.21801
Vreeland H, Weber R, Bergin M, Greenwald R, Golan R, Russell AG, Verma V, Sarnat JA (2017) Oxidative potential of PM2.5 during Atlanta rush hour: measurements of in-vehicle dithiothreitol (DTT) activity. Atmos Environ 165:169–178. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ATMOSENV.2017.06.044
Wan Mahiyuddin WR, Sahani M, Aripin R, Latif MT, Thach TQ, Wong CM (2013) Short-term effects of daily air pollution on mortality. Atmos Environ 65:69–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.10.019
Westerdahl D, Fruin S, Sax T, Fine PM, Sioutas C (2005) Mobile platform measurements of ultrafine particles and associated pollutant concentrations on freeways and residential streets in Los Angeles. Atmos Environ 39:3597–3610. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ATMOSENV.2005.02.034
Wichmann HE, Spix C, Tuch T et al (2000) Daily mortality and fine and ultrafine particles in Erfurt, Germany part I: role of particle number and particle mass. Res Rep Health Eff Inst:5–86 discussion 87–94
Wübbeler G, Krystek M, Elster C (2008) Evaluation of measurement uncertainty and its numerical calculation by a Monte Carlo method. Meas Sci Technol 19:084009. https://doi.org/10.1088/0957-0233/19/8/084009
Xu B, Chen X, Xiong J (2018) Air quality inside motor vehicles’ cabins: a review. Indoor Built Environ 27:452–465. https://doi.org/10.1177/1420326X16679217
Yazdi M, Ketabchy M, Nia M (2015) Clogging evaluation and pollutants removal from surface runoff by permeable pavement system: insights from the laboratory rainfall simulator. J UMP Soc Sci Technol Manag 3
Yazdi MN, Sample DJ, Scott D, Owen JS (2019) Water quality characterization of irrigation and storm runoff for a nursery. Springer, Cham, pp 788–793
You Y, Niu C, Zhou J, Liu Y, Bai Z, Zhang J, He F, Zhang N (2012) Measurement of air exchange rates in different indoor environments using continuous CO2 sensors. J Environ Sci 24:657–664. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1001-0742(11)60812-7
Zhu Y, Eiguren-Fernandez A, Hinds WC, Miguel AH (2007) In-cabin commuter exposure to ultrafine particles on Los Angeles freeways. Environ Sci Technol 41:2138–2145
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Responsible editor: Gerhard Lammel
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Nayeb Yazdi, M., Arhami, M., Delavarrafiee, M. et al. Developing air exchange rate models by evaluating vehicle in-cabin air pollutant exposures in a highway and tunnel setting: case study of Tehran, Iran. Environ Sci Pollut Res 26, 501–513 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-018-3611-9
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-018-3611-9